MM6 - Media representation of Gender
Representation of Women
Traditional Representations of Women
The media plays a powerful role in shaping ideas about femininity. Historically, women have been represented in narrow and stereotypical ways that reinforce traditional gender roles. These portrayals often emphasise women’s appearance, emotional sensitivity, and relationships with men rather than their achievements or authority. Sociologists argue that this limits how women are valued in society and influences how they are treated in areas such as work, politics, and personal relationships.
The Just Women Report (2012), which analysed UK national newspapers, found that women were frequently portrayed in sexist ways, with a strong focus on looks, relationships, and personal lives. Women’s professional success was often ignored or downplayed. The report also identified “double victimisation”, where female victims of crime were sometimes blamed for their own experiences. Media coverage of Reeva Steenkamp’s murder often focused more on Oscar Pistorius’ sporting career than on her life, reflecting this imbalance.
The Cult of Femininity - 1980
Marjorie Ferguson’s study of women’s magazines, TV, and advertising used content analysis to examine patterns in how women were portrayed in the media. From this research, she developed the concept of the cult of femininity, which describes a narrow and idealised image of womanhood repeatedly promoted through media texts.
One key feature of this portrayal is idealised womanhood. Women are shown as physically perfect, nurturing, and focused on beauty and homemaking. These representations promote unrealistic standards of femininity and reinforce the idea that a woman’s value lies mainly in her appearance and domestic abilities rather than her intelligence or achievements.
Ferguson also highlighted the importance of consumerism in female representation. Women’s magazines frequently encourage readers to buy beauty products, fashion, and household items, suggesting that these purchases are essential for becoming the ideal woman. This creates pressure on women to consume in order to achieve happiness, success, and social approval.
Another central theme is the reinforcement of traditional gender roles. Women are commonly portrayed as wives, mothers, homemakers, and supporters of male success. These roles are presented as natural and desirable, limiting expectations of women’s ambitions and positioning domestic labour as their primary responsibility.
Ferguson criticised the lack of intersectionality in these portrayals. The media tends to present a narrow image of femininity that is predominantly white, middle-class, and heterosexual. This excludes the experiences of working-class women, ethnic minority women, and LGBTQ+ women, creating a one-dimensional and unrealistic view of womanhood.
Women are also frequently represented as passive and dependent, relying on men for emotional, financial, and social stability. Rather than being shown as independent decision-makers, women are encouraged to seek approval and avoid confrontation in order to meet the idealised feminine image.
Finally, Ferguson identified emotionalism as a recurring stereotype. Women are often portrayed as highly emotional, focusing on love, relationships, and personal struggles rather than logic or intellect. This reinforces the stereotype that women are naturally sensitive and irrational, helping to justify their exclusion from positions of power and authority.
Although Ferguson’s research focused on media from the late 20th century, many of these stereotypes remain visible today. Social media platforms such as Instagram continue to promote idealised lifestyles, beauty standards, and consumer-focused femininity, showing that the cult of femininity still influences modern media representations.
Symbolic Annihilation (1978)
Gaye Tuchman introduced the concept of symbolic annihilation to explain how women are misrepresented in the media. She argued that women are often omitted, trivialised, or condemned, which sends the message that they are less important than men in society.
Omission refers to the absence or underrepresentation of women, particularly in positions of power, expertise, or authority. Research consistently shows that men dominate expert roles in the media. Cochran (2011) found that 84% of expert voices in UK news broadcasts were male. More recent studies support this pattern. Rodriguez (2023) reported that only 20% of experts featured in TV programmes were women, while Aulia (2021) found that women made up just 24% of people we read about in news media. This lack of visibility reinforces the idea that men are more knowledgeable and authoritative, limiting female role models.
Trivialisation occurs when women are included in media but shown in narrow, stereotypical roles. Tunstall (2000) identified four common roles for women: the mother, the wife, the “whore”, and the “bitch”. These roles reduce women’s identities and focus on how they relate to men rather than their achievements. Women are also frequently treated as sexual commodities, where their appearance is prioritised over their skills or intelligence. Mulvey’s concept of the male gaze explains how media is often produced from a male perspective, presenting women as objects of desire. Studies such as Bates (2014) show that women in advertising and music videos are judged more harshly on their looks than men, reinforcing unrealistic beauty standards.
Condemnation happens when women who challenge traditional gender roles are portrayed negatively. Women who are ambitious, assertive, or independent are often shown as cold, aggressive, or unlikeable. In films like The Devil Wears Prada, powerful women are punished narratively for their success. Similarly, real-life female figures who reject traditional femininity often face harsher media scrutiny. Crewe and others argue that these portrayals discourage women from embracing power and reinforce traditional expectations about gender roles.
Media Empowering Women
Not all media representations of women are negative. Sociologist David Gauntlett argues that modern, 21st-century media can challenge traditional gender stereotypes and offer women a wider range of identities. He suggests that women are no longer shown only as passive or domestic, but increasingly as independent, strong, and self-determining. Gauntlett highlights campaigns such as Always’ Like a Girl and Just a Girl, which encourage confidence, resilience, and empowerment rather than shame or weakness.
Gauntlett also argues that women do not have to choose between being successful and being feminine. He suggests that modern media allows women to combine independence, ambition, and femininity, summed up in his idea that women can “have it all”. Films such as Barbie (2023) reflect this by questioning traditional gender expectations and encouraging audiences to rethink what empowerment looks like for women and men.
Green and Singleton (2013) focus on the role of digital media in empowering women. They argue that the internet and social media act as “feminine technologies” because they allow women to challenge sexism directly and share their experiences without relying on traditional media. Online movements such as #MeToo, #EverydaySexism, and body-positivity campaigns give women a platform to speak out, raise awareness, and support one another globally.
However, Green and Singleton also warn that inequality has not disappeared. Gendered marketing still targets women through “feminine” packaging and advertising, and products aimed at women are often more expensive. This is known as the pink tax, where items such as razors or deodorants cost more simply because they are marketed to women. These examples show that while media can empower women, it can also continue to reinforce inequality in more subtle ways.
Evaluation of Media Representation of Women
Overall, media representations of women have improved, but significant inequalities remain. On the positive side, modern media offers more diverse and empowering portrayals of women. Sociologists such as Gauntlett argue that contemporary media challenges traditional stereotypes and presents women as independent, confident, and successful. Campaigns like Like a Girl and films such as Barbie (2023) encourage audiences to question gender norms and promote female empowerment.
However, many sociologists argue that progress is limited and uneven. McRobbie suggests that media often promotes a post-feminist message, implying that gender equality has already been achieved. This can hide ongoing problems such as sexism, objectification, and unequal power. Women are still frequently judged on their appearance rather than their achievements, particularly in the news, advertising, and social media.
In addition, Green and Singleton point out that while digital media allows women to challenge sexism through online movements, it also continues to reinforce inequality through gendered marketing and the pink tax. This shows that empowerment often exists alongside subtle forms of discrimination.
Media Representation of Men
Traditional Masculinity in the Media
Media representations of men have traditionally promoted a narrow version of masculinity based on toughness, dominance, and emotional control. The Geena Davis Institute’s report If He Can See It, He Will Be It (2020) found that male characters in TV shows aimed at boys rarely express emotions beyond anger or stoicism. Instead, they are more likely to solve problems through violence and aggression, often without help from others or adult guidance. This reinforces the idea that men should be strong, fearless, and emotionally detached.
Jackson Katz’s concept of “tough guise” helps explain these portrayals. He argues that the media promotes toxic masculinity by normalising violence, sexism, and homophobia. These messages suggest that real men should be dominant, aggressive, and emotionally controlled, while femininity and LGBTQ+ identities are devalued.
Common Stereotypes of Men (McNamara)
McNamara (2006) identified several recurring stereotypes in media representations of men. Men are often shown as self-sufficient, solving problems alone and avoiding emotional support. Action heroes such as James Bond reinforce the idea that asking for help is a weakness.
Men are also frequently portrayed as acting tough, enduring physical and emotional pain without showing vulnerability. Characters like John McClane in Die Hard reflect this expectation that men should be stoic and resilient. Another common stereotype is the expert, where male characters dominate professional roles such as doctors, detectives, and scientists, reinforcing the idea that authority and intelligence are male traits.
Media also links masculinity to physical attractiveness and strength, particularly through muscular superheroes such as Thor, suggesting that power and masculinity come from physical dominance. Aggression and control are often presented as normal and desirable masculine traits, especially in films like Gladiator, where violence is used to assert authority.
Heterosexuality is another key expectation. Media frequently reinforces heteronormativity, sometimes using homophobia for humour, as seen in Friends. Men are also often portrayed as hypersexual, with characters like Barney Stinson in How I Met Your Mother valuing sexual conquest as proof of masculinity. In some films, men who take on traditionally feminine roles are used for comedic value, such as in Mrs Doubtfire, reinforcing the idea that femininity undermines masculinity.
Changing Masculinities
Connell’s concept of hegemonic masculinity explains how one dominant form of masculinity marginalises men who are gay, emotionally expressive, or do not fit traditional expectations. While this dominant masculinity remains influential, media representations are beginning to change.
Campaigns such as Movember encourage men to talk openly about mental health, challenging the idea that emotional vulnerability is a weakness. Social media platforms like YouTube and Instagram increasingly feature discussions about male wellbeing and identity.
Television shows such as Ted Lasso present emotionally open, caring male characters, while Sex Education explores male vulnerability, friendship, and sexuality in more realistic ways. Sociologist Ben Crewe argues that masculinity is socially constructed and adaptable, meaning these newer representations reflect wider social changes.
Despite this progress, traditional masculine stereotypes still dominate much of mainstream media. This shows that representations of men remain contested, with both progressive and traditional ideas existing side by side.
Representation of Transgender and Non-Binary People
Visibility and Identity
Since around 2014, transgender and non-binary people have become more visible in the media, partly due to the rise of social media and online activism. However, many representations remain limited. Characters are often reduced to their gender identity, with storylines focusing mainly on transition, struggle, or difference rather than showing them as fully developed individuals with varied experiences, relationships, and ambitions. This means gender identity becomes the defining feature of the character rather than just one aspect of who they are.
Stereotypes, Tokenism, and Comic Value
Transgender and non-binary characters are sometimes included for tokenistic reasons, appearing briefly to show diversity without meaningful development or impact on the storyline. In some media texts, they are also used for comic value, where humour is based on misunderstanding, shock, or ridicule. These portrayals reinforce harmful stereotypes rather than encouraging understanding and acceptance.
Another common issue is supporting role representation, where trans or non-binary characters exist mainly to support cisgender characters, such as the “gay best friend” stereotype. This places them on the margins of the narrative rather than at the centre of their own stories.
Sexualisation and Deception
Some media representations rely on hypersexualisation, where transgender characters are framed in terms of their bodies or sexuality rather than their personality or achievements. This can distort public understanding and reinforce objectification. In other cases, trans characters are portrayed as deceptive, hiding their “true” gender, which promotes harmful ideas linking transgender identities with dishonesty or betrayal.
The Tragic Trans Narrative
A particularly damaging pattern is the “tragic trans” narrative, where transgender characters are shown as suffering, isolated, or doomed. These characters often face rejection, violence, or death, reinforcing the idea that trans lives are defined by pain. Julia Serano criticises this portrayal, arguing that it limits public understanding of the diversity and positivity of trans experiences.
Progress and More Positive Representations
Despite these issues, there has been some progress. Shows such as Pose offer richer, community-based narratives and feature transgender actors playing transgender characters. These portrayals highlight joy, resilience, and identity beyond trauma.
Connell’s work on gender plurality reminds us that gender is socially constructed and not fixed or binary. Media that reflects this complexity can challenge stereotypes and promote inclusion. However, when media fails to move beyond simplistic or negative portrayals, it continues to marginalise transgender and non-binary people.
Theoretical Perspectives
Feminist Perspectives
Feminists argue that the media plays a major role in gender role socialisation, shaping ideas about masculinity, femininity, and non-binary identities. They believe media representations often reinforce patriarchal norms, limiting how genders are expected to behave.
Liberal feminists accept that some progress has been made but argue there is still a cultural lag. Women remain underrepresented in powerful media roles, particularly behind the scenes. For example, despite strong female leads in shows like Killing Eve or Barbie (2023), men still dominate directing and production roles in the film industry.
Radical feminists, such as Naomi Wolf, argue that the media actively oppresses women through the beauty myth. Advertising, Instagram influencers, and celebrity culture continue to promote unrealistic beauty standards, pressuring women to control their appearance to gain approval.
Marxist feminists link women’s oppression to consumer capitalism, arguing that media representations encourage women to buy products to “fix” themselves, benefiting large corporations rather than women.
Marxist Perspectives
Marxists argue that media representations are shaped by the needs of capitalism, not fairness or equality. Media companies prioritise profit, often creating and reinforcing gender stereotypes because they help sell products.
Theorists such as Adorno and Horkheimer describe the media as part of the culture industry, where standardised images promote false needs. For example, beauty and fitness influencers on TikTok and Instagram often promote expensive products by presenting insecurity as a problem that consumption can solve. This applies to both men and women, but particularly reinforces pressure on women to meet idealised standards.
From this view, gender representation is less about accuracy and more about maximising consumer demand.
Pluralist Perspectives
Pluralists disagree with the idea that audiences are passive. They argue that people are active consumers who interpret media messages differently and are capable of rejecting stereotypes.
Pluralists suggest that media reflects audience preferences, meaning representations change as society changes. For example, shows like Sex Education, Stranger Things, and Wednesday include characters who challenge traditional gender roles and remain popular with audiences. This suggests viewers are open to more diverse and complex representations.
From this perspective, gender stereotypes exist not because audiences are manipulated, but because media producers respond to what they believe audiences will watch.
Postmodern Perspectives
Postmodernists argue that gender representations in the media are becoming increasingly diverse, fluid, and fragmented. Sociologist David Gauntlett takes an optimistic view, suggesting that modern media challenges traditional stereotypes rather than reinforcing them.
Gauntlett argues that contemporary media offers a wide range of identities, allowing people to choose representations that reflect their own experiences. Platforms like Netflix, YouTube, and TikTok showcase varied masculinities, femininities, and non-binary identities. Shows such as Barbie (2023) and Sex Education challenge binary ideas of gender and promote individualism and self-expression.
From a postmodern view, the media no longer presents one dominant message about gender but instead offers multiple interpretations, giving audiences more freedom to define their own identities.