FH2 - Family Diversity  

What Is Family Diversity?

Family diversity refers to the range of family forms, structures, and relationships found in modern society. It challenges the idea that the nuclear family—a married, heterosexual couple with dependent children—is the only or “ideal” family type.

Sociologists recognise that families differ depending on:

  • Culture and ethnicity

  • Historical context

  • Social class

  • Economic situation

  • Personal choice

Family diversity reflects wider changes in gender roles, law, religion, globalisation, and economic pressures.
Understanding this diversity helps us see how families adapt to meet individual and social needs.

Dominant Family Types

Functionalist View – George Murdock

Murdock (1949) argued that the nuclear family is both universal and essential for society. He identified four key functions:

  1. Sexual Regulation – Controls sexual behaviour to maintain order.

  2. Reproduction – Ensures the continuation of society.

  3. Economic Support – Meets financial and material needs.

  4. Socialisation – Teaches children the norms and values of their culture.

Criticism: Murdock ignores other family forms that can perform these roles just as effectively, such as same-sex or lone-parent families.

Dispersed Extended Family – Peter Willmott

Willmott (1988) argued that the extended family has not disappeared but evolved into a dispersed extended family.
Members may live far apart but remain emotionally close and supportive through:

  • Technology (video calls, messaging)

  • Cheaper and easier travel

Example: Grandparents who live in another city but help financially or emotionally with childcare.

Beanpole Family – Julia Brannen

Brannen described the beanpole family as having strong vertical ties (between parents and grandparents) but fewer horizontal ties (fewer siblings, cousins, or aunts/uncles).
This pattern is caused by:

  • Falling birth rates

  • Longer life expectancy

This reflects demographic change — smaller but longer-living family networks.

Historical Diversity – Michael Anderson

Anderson argued that family diversity isn’t new.
During the Industrial Revolution, families often included extended relatives under one roof. This was a practical solution to poverty — pooling resources helped working-class families survive.
It shows that families have always adapted to their circumstances.

Rapoport and Rapoport (1982):

Five Types of Family Diversity

Rapoport and Rapoport conducted a large-scale analysis of family life in the UK and identified five types of diversity that define modern family life:

  1. Cultural Diversity –
    Family structures vary across ethnic and cultural groups.

    • Afro-Caribbean families are often matrifocal (mother-led).

    • South Asian families tend to be extended and patriarchal.

  2. Life Course Diversity –
    Families change as people move through life stages.

    • Example: A young person may live with parents, then cohabit with a partner, later marry, and possibly divorce.

  3. Organisational Diversity –
    Refers to differences in roles, work patterns, and decision-making.

    • Example: In some dual-earner families, both partners share housework; in others, women still do most domestic tasks.

  4. Generational Diversity –
    Different generations have different experiences and attitudes.

    • Example: Older generations may value marriage; younger ones may prefer cohabitation.

  5. Social Class Diversity –
    Class and income shape family life.

    • Example: Middle-class families may have one parent stay at home, whereas working-class families often rely on two incomes.

Causes of Family Diversity

Legal Changes

  • Divorce Reform Act (1969) – made divorce easier by removing the need to prove fault, increasing the number of single-parent and reconstituted families.

  • Same-Sex Marriage Act (2014) – legalised marriage for same-sex couples, giving recognition to diverse family forms.

Changing Social Attitudes

Society is now more accepting of cohabitation, divorce, and same-sex relationships.
The emphasis has shifted from tradition to personal choice and emotional fulfilment.

The Changing Role of Women

Feminism and gender equality have transformed family life.
Women now prioritise education, careers, and independence, leading to:

  • More dual-earner families

  • More lone-parent households

  • Greater female financial independence

Secularisation

The decline of religious influence has reduced the stigma around divorce, cohabitation, and children born outside marriage.
People now base family choices on personal values rather than religious expectations.

Globalisation and Immigration

Migration introduces new cultural family patterns such as extended and multigenerational households.
Some families maintain strong cross-country links, forming transnational families.

Material and Economic Factors

  • Higher living standards allow more people to live independently, increasing single-person households.

  • Longer life expectancy leads to multigenerational families.

  • Economic independence (especially for women) increases choice in family arrangements.

Theories of Family Diversity

Functionalism – Talcott Parsons

Parsons’ functional fit theory argues that family structure changes to suit the needs of society.

  • Pre-industrial society: extended families were dominant and suited to agricultural life.

  • Industrial society: nuclear families became dominant because they were more geographically mobile and met new economic demands.

He identified two key functions of the modern family:

  • Primary socialisation – teaching children society’s norms and values.

  • Stabilisation of adult personalities – providing emotional support (the “warm bath” theory).

Criticisms:

  • Oversimplifies history; evidence from Laslett and Anderson shows extended families continued into industrialisation.

  • Ignores the continued existence of other family types.

The New Right – Charles Murray

The New Right view, led by Murray, supports the traditional nuclear family as essential for social stability.
He argues that the rise of lone-parent families, especially those led by single mothers, has led to social problems such as poor discipline and welfare dependency.
He calls this group the “underclass.”

Criticisms:

  • Feminists argue Murray unfairly blames women and ignores poverty and inequality.

  • Many lone-parent families raise successful children.

  • Dismisses diversity that functions well.

Postmodernism – Giddens, Beck & Beck-Gernsheim

Postmodernists celebrate family diversity as a sign of freedom and individuality.

  • Giddens describes the “pure relationship” – based on love and satisfaction, not obligation.

  • Beck & Beck-Gernsheim developed the individualisation thesis, suggesting people build their own “do-it-yourself” families that reflect their personal needs.

Criticisms:

  • Overlooks structural inequalities (class, gender, ethnicity).

  • Not everyone has the same ability to choose freely.

Feminism – Judith Stacey

Feminists view family diversity as empowering, especially for women.
Judith Stacey argues it allows women to:

  • Challenge patriarchy

  • Create flexible family forms such as shared parenting or single motherhood

  • Balance career and family life more effectively

Criticisms:

  • Not all women benefit equally. Class and ethnicity can limit access to these freedoms.

  • Working-class women may face greater financial hardship.

Robert Chester – The Neo-Conventional Family

Chester believes that family diversity has been exaggerated.
He argues that most people still prefer or eventually return to the nuclear family, but in an updated form called the neo-conventional family — where both partners work and share responsibilities more equally.

Criticisms:

  • Underestimates long-term diversity and acceptance of non-traditional families.

  • Ignores permanent changes in attitudes toward marriage and gender roles.